Deductive Reasoning
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Deductive reasoning is the process of starting with one or more statements called premises and investigating what conclusions necessarily follow from these premises.
Deduction is taught through the study of formal logic, or the science of good reasoning.
The standardized language of syllogisms allows a reduction of everyday language into verbal equations.
Syllogisms allow logicians to determine what is being said, to identify hidden premises, and to find out if the argument makes sense.
Saturday, May 3, 2008
Thinking for your self Chapter 11
Inductive Reasoning and Inductive Fallacies
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Inductive reasoning is a method used to discover new information or to supply missing information. When we use inductive reasoning, we observe, test, and check things out in some systematic fashion. The inductive method is also called the empirical or scientific method.
Induction can be done through sensory observation, enumeration, analogous reasoning, causal reasoning, and from pattern recognition.
Inductive reasoning is used as a method for obtaining information when it would be impossible to examine all the data available. This is done by taking statistical samplings or by making extrapolations.
Hasty generalization is the fallacy of basing a conclusion on insufficient evidence.
Inconsistency in evidence is the fallacy of offering evidence that contradicts the conclusion.The slippery slope is the fallacy of claiming without sufficient proof that permitting one event to occur would lead to a chain reaction that could not be stopped. It ignores the many variables or unknowns in the situation
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Inductive reasoning is a method used to discover new information or to supply missing information. When we use inductive reasoning, we observe, test, and check things out in some systematic fashion. The inductive method is also called the empirical or scientific method.
Induction can be done through sensory observation, enumeration, analogous reasoning, causal reasoning, and from pattern recognition.
Inductive reasoning is used as a method for obtaining information when it would be impossible to examine all the data available. This is done by taking statistical samplings or by making extrapolations.
Hasty generalization is the fallacy of basing a conclusion on insufficient evidence.
Inconsistency in evidence is the fallacy of offering evidence that contradicts the conclusion.The slippery slope is the fallacy of claiming without sufficient proof that permitting one event to occur would lead to a chain reaction that could not be stopped. It ignores the many variables or unknowns in the situation
Thinking for your self Chapter 10
Fallacies: What’s a Faulty Argument?
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Word ambiguity uses undefined and vague words in an argument, seeking to gain an advantage by using words that could be interpreted in more than one way.
Misleading euphemisms are words that hide meaning by wrapping a less acceptable idea in positive or neutral connotations.
Appeal to false authority seeks to influence others by citing phoney or inappropriate authorities. This false authority might be a person, a tradition, or conventional wisdom.
Appeal to bandwagon is another example of the appeal to authority. In this case, the authority is the exhilarating momentum of the herd instinct.
Personal attack refutes another argument by attacking the opponent rather than addressing the argument itself. This fallacy can take the form of using abusive language or name-calling.
Poisoning the well seeks to prejudice others against a person, group, or idea and prevent their positions from being heard. This technique seeks to remove the neutrality necessary for listening and to implant prejudice instead.
The red herring is a ploy of distraction. It makes a claim, then instead of following through with support, it minimizes the issue or/ diverts attention into irrelevant issues.
The straw man is an argument that misrepresents, oversimplifies, or caricatures an opponent’s position; it creates a false replica, and then destroys the replica.
Pointing to another wrong are also called two wrongs make a right. It says, “Don’t look at me; he did it too!”
Circular reasoning is the assertion or repeated assertion of a conclusion as though the conclusion were a reason. It can also pretend that no supporting reasons are needed.
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Word ambiguity uses undefined and vague words in an argument, seeking to gain an advantage by using words that could be interpreted in more than one way.
Misleading euphemisms are words that hide meaning by wrapping a less acceptable idea in positive or neutral connotations.
Appeal to false authority seeks to influence others by citing phoney or inappropriate authorities. This false authority might be a person, a tradition, or conventional wisdom.
Appeal to bandwagon is another example of the appeal to authority. In this case, the authority is the exhilarating momentum of the herd instinct.
Personal attack refutes another argument by attacking the opponent rather than addressing the argument itself. This fallacy can take the form of using abusive language or name-calling.
Poisoning the well seeks to prejudice others against a person, group, or idea and prevent their positions from being heard. This technique seeks to remove the neutrality necessary for listening and to implant prejudice instead.
The red herring is a ploy of distraction. It makes a claim, then instead of following through with support, it minimizes the issue or/ diverts attention into irrelevant issues.
The straw man is an argument that misrepresents, oversimplifies, or caricatures an opponent’s position; it creates a false replica, and then destroys the replica.
Pointing to another wrong are also called two wrongs make a right. It says, “Don’t look at me; he did it too!”
Circular reasoning is the assertion or repeated assertion of a conclusion as though the conclusion were a reason. It can also pretend that no supporting reasons are needed.
Thinking for your self Chapter 9
Argument
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The critical reading of arguments is an active endeavor that requires involvement, interaction with questions, and evaluation.
What an argument first needs is an objective reading or hearing. Afterwards criticism can begin with five questions:
a) What viewpoint is the source of this argument?
b) What is the issue of controversy?
c) Is it an argument or a report?
d) How is the argument structured in terms of reasons and conclusions?
e) What are the argument’s strengths and weaknesses?
The analysis of arguments in terms of their reasons and conclusions applies to both inductive and deductive arguments. Reasons include data, evidence, and premises, while conclusions include those deductively drawn as well as hypotheses.
The following questions can serve as guidelines for analyzing the strengths and weaknesses of arguments:
a) Are the reasons adequate to support the conclusion?
b) Are there any hidden assumptions?
c) Are any central words ambiguous or slanted so as to incite prejudice?
d) Are there fallacies of reasoning?
e) Is any important information missing?
f) Is any information false or contradictory?
http://freemindshare.com/map/OTdDMHSuZc/
The critical reading of arguments is an active endeavor that requires involvement, interaction with questions, and evaluation.
What an argument first needs is an objective reading or hearing. Afterwards criticism can begin with five questions:
a) What viewpoint is the source of this argument?
b) What is the issue of controversy?
c) Is it an argument or a report?
d) How is the argument structured in terms of reasons and conclusions?
e) What are the argument’s strengths and weaknesses?
The analysis of arguments in terms of their reasons and conclusions applies to both inductive and deductive arguments. Reasons include data, evidence, and premises, while conclusions include those deductively drawn as well as hypotheses.
The following questions can serve as guidelines for analyzing the strengths and weaknesses of arguments:
a) Are the reasons adequate to support the conclusion?
b) Are there any hidden assumptions?
c) Are any central words ambiguous or slanted so as to incite prejudice?
d) Are there fallacies of reasoning?
e) Is any important information missing?
f) Is any information false or contradictory?
Friday, May 2, 2008
Thinking for your self Chapter 8
Viewpoints
http://freemindshare.com/map/amnt18HSTY/ The ability to detach from one’s own point of view and assume another’s is an important skill; it enables us to communicate better with others and gain new perspectives.
In literature an author can choose a third person to tell the story with omniscient or limited understanding. Other choices of viewpoint include a first-person narrative told by character or the multiple points of view shared by several characters.
Viewpoints, like assumptions, opinions, and evaluations, may or may not be consciously recognized.
Unconscious viewpoints include the egocentric, ethnocentric, religiocentric, andocentric, and anthropocentric.
U.S. politics cannot be defined in terms of a simple left-to-left spectrum of viewpoints.
News framing describes the way an editor uses layout design, placement, and headlines to sensationalize, downplay, exaggerate, or convey importance.
chapter 14
Evaluating Internet Resources
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Accessing information from the Web is a skill you need to learn not only for college, but also for the world of work. As a reader and thinker, become an ‘open minded skeptic’ by considering each web site’s Relevancy, Reliability, Credibility and Accuracy using the following seven steps:
1. Know your purpose.
2. Double-check facts and sources.
3. Consider the source.
4. Evaluate content.
5. Determine intended audience.
6. Evaluate the writing.
7. Use what you already know.
http://freemindshare.com/map/gkrtwEGHRX/
Accessing information from the Web is a skill you need to learn not only for college, but also for the world of work. As a reader and thinker, become an ‘open minded skeptic’ by considering each web site’s Relevancy, Reliability, Credibility and Accuracy using the following seven steps:
1. Know your purpose.
2. Double-check facts and sources.
3. Consider the source.
4. Evaluate content.
5. Determine intended audience.
6. Evaluate the writing.
7. Use what you already know.
Tuesday, April 29, 2008
Chapter 13
Reading beyond the Words
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Critical reading means to asking and answering questions about your reading material at all level thinking. Bloom’s taxonomy lists six levels of critical thinking –knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation- that you can use to deepen your understanding of textbook material. By creating and answering questions at each of these levels, you will be better able to predict the kind of questions your instructor will ask on an exam and better prepared to answer them.
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Critical reading means to asking and answering questions about your reading material at all level thinking. Bloom’s taxonomy lists six levels of critical thinking –knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation- that you can use to deepen your understanding of textbook material. By creating and answering questions at each of these levels, you will be better able to predict the kind of questions your instructor will ask on an exam and better prepared to answer them.
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