Deductive Reasoning
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Deductive reasoning is the process of starting with one or more statements called premises and investigating what conclusions necessarily follow from these premises.
Deduction is taught through the study of formal logic, or the science of good reasoning.
The standardized language of syllogisms allows a reduction of everyday language into verbal equations.
Syllogisms allow logicians to determine what is being said, to identify hidden premises, and to find out if the argument makes sense.
Saturday, May 3, 2008
Thinking for your self Chapter 11
Inductive Reasoning and Inductive Fallacies
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Inductive reasoning is a method used to discover new information or to supply missing information. When we use inductive reasoning, we observe, test, and check things out in some systematic fashion. The inductive method is also called the empirical or scientific method.
Induction can be done through sensory observation, enumeration, analogous reasoning, causal reasoning, and from pattern recognition.
Inductive reasoning is used as a method for obtaining information when it would be impossible to examine all the data available. This is done by taking statistical samplings or by making extrapolations.
Hasty generalization is the fallacy of basing a conclusion on insufficient evidence.
Inconsistency in evidence is the fallacy of offering evidence that contradicts the conclusion.The slippery slope is the fallacy of claiming without sufficient proof that permitting one event to occur would lead to a chain reaction that could not be stopped. It ignores the many variables or unknowns in the situation
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Inductive reasoning is a method used to discover new information or to supply missing information. When we use inductive reasoning, we observe, test, and check things out in some systematic fashion. The inductive method is also called the empirical or scientific method.
Induction can be done through sensory observation, enumeration, analogous reasoning, causal reasoning, and from pattern recognition.
Inductive reasoning is used as a method for obtaining information when it would be impossible to examine all the data available. This is done by taking statistical samplings or by making extrapolations.
Hasty generalization is the fallacy of basing a conclusion on insufficient evidence.
Inconsistency in evidence is the fallacy of offering evidence that contradicts the conclusion.The slippery slope is the fallacy of claiming without sufficient proof that permitting one event to occur would lead to a chain reaction that could not be stopped. It ignores the many variables or unknowns in the situation
Thinking for your self Chapter 10
Fallacies: What’s a Faulty Argument?
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Word ambiguity uses undefined and vague words in an argument, seeking to gain an advantage by using words that could be interpreted in more than one way.
Misleading euphemisms are words that hide meaning by wrapping a less acceptable idea in positive or neutral connotations.
Appeal to false authority seeks to influence others by citing phoney or inappropriate authorities. This false authority might be a person, a tradition, or conventional wisdom.
Appeal to bandwagon is another example of the appeal to authority. In this case, the authority is the exhilarating momentum of the herd instinct.
Personal attack refutes another argument by attacking the opponent rather than addressing the argument itself. This fallacy can take the form of using abusive language or name-calling.
Poisoning the well seeks to prejudice others against a person, group, or idea and prevent their positions from being heard. This technique seeks to remove the neutrality necessary for listening and to implant prejudice instead.
The red herring is a ploy of distraction. It makes a claim, then instead of following through with support, it minimizes the issue or/ diverts attention into irrelevant issues.
The straw man is an argument that misrepresents, oversimplifies, or caricatures an opponent’s position; it creates a false replica, and then destroys the replica.
Pointing to another wrong are also called two wrongs make a right. It says, “Don’t look at me; he did it too!”
Circular reasoning is the assertion or repeated assertion of a conclusion as though the conclusion were a reason. It can also pretend that no supporting reasons are needed.
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Word ambiguity uses undefined and vague words in an argument, seeking to gain an advantage by using words that could be interpreted in more than one way.
Misleading euphemisms are words that hide meaning by wrapping a less acceptable idea in positive or neutral connotations.
Appeal to false authority seeks to influence others by citing phoney or inappropriate authorities. This false authority might be a person, a tradition, or conventional wisdom.
Appeal to bandwagon is another example of the appeal to authority. In this case, the authority is the exhilarating momentum of the herd instinct.
Personal attack refutes another argument by attacking the opponent rather than addressing the argument itself. This fallacy can take the form of using abusive language or name-calling.
Poisoning the well seeks to prejudice others against a person, group, or idea and prevent their positions from being heard. This technique seeks to remove the neutrality necessary for listening and to implant prejudice instead.
The red herring is a ploy of distraction. It makes a claim, then instead of following through with support, it minimizes the issue or/ diverts attention into irrelevant issues.
The straw man is an argument that misrepresents, oversimplifies, or caricatures an opponent’s position; it creates a false replica, and then destroys the replica.
Pointing to another wrong are also called two wrongs make a right. It says, “Don’t look at me; he did it too!”
Circular reasoning is the assertion or repeated assertion of a conclusion as though the conclusion were a reason. It can also pretend that no supporting reasons are needed.
Thinking for your self Chapter 9
Argument
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The critical reading of arguments is an active endeavor that requires involvement, interaction with questions, and evaluation.
What an argument first needs is an objective reading or hearing. Afterwards criticism can begin with five questions:
a) What viewpoint is the source of this argument?
b) What is the issue of controversy?
c) Is it an argument or a report?
d) How is the argument structured in terms of reasons and conclusions?
e) What are the argument’s strengths and weaknesses?
The analysis of arguments in terms of their reasons and conclusions applies to both inductive and deductive arguments. Reasons include data, evidence, and premises, while conclusions include those deductively drawn as well as hypotheses.
The following questions can serve as guidelines for analyzing the strengths and weaknesses of arguments:
a) Are the reasons adequate to support the conclusion?
b) Are there any hidden assumptions?
c) Are any central words ambiguous or slanted so as to incite prejudice?
d) Are there fallacies of reasoning?
e) Is any important information missing?
f) Is any information false or contradictory?
http://freemindshare.com/map/OTdDMHSuZc/
The critical reading of arguments is an active endeavor that requires involvement, interaction with questions, and evaluation.
What an argument first needs is an objective reading or hearing. Afterwards criticism can begin with five questions:
a) What viewpoint is the source of this argument?
b) What is the issue of controversy?
c) Is it an argument or a report?
d) How is the argument structured in terms of reasons and conclusions?
e) What are the argument’s strengths and weaknesses?
The analysis of arguments in terms of their reasons and conclusions applies to both inductive and deductive arguments. Reasons include data, evidence, and premises, while conclusions include those deductively drawn as well as hypotheses.
The following questions can serve as guidelines for analyzing the strengths and weaknesses of arguments:
a) Are the reasons adequate to support the conclusion?
b) Are there any hidden assumptions?
c) Are any central words ambiguous or slanted so as to incite prejudice?
d) Are there fallacies of reasoning?
e) Is any important information missing?
f) Is any information false or contradictory?
Friday, May 2, 2008
Thinking for your self Chapter 8
Viewpoints
http://freemindshare.com/map/amnt18HSTY/ The ability to detach from one’s own point of view and assume another’s is an important skill; it enables us to communicate better with others and gain new perspectives.
In literature an author can choose a third person to tell the story with omniscient or limited understanding. Other choices of viewpoint include a first-person narrative told by character or the multiple points of view shared by several characters.
Viewpoints, like assumptions, opinions, and evaluations, may or may not be consciously recognized.
Unconscious viewpoints include the egocentric, ethnocentric, religiocentric, andocentric, and anthropocentric.
U.S. politics cannot be defined in terms of a simple left-to-left spectrum of viewpoints.
News framing describes the way an editor uses layout design, placement, and headlines to sensationalize, downplay, exaggerate, or convey importance.
chapter 14
Evaluating Internet Resources
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Accessing information from the Web is a skill you need to learn not only for college, but also for the world of work. As a reader and thinker, become an ‘open minded skeptic’ by considering each web site’s Relevancy, Reliability, Credibility and Accuracy using the following seven steps:
1. Know your purpose.
2. Double-check facts and sources.
3. Consider the source.
4. Evaluate content.
5. Determine intended audience.
6. Evaluate the writing.
7. Use what you already know.
http://freemindshare.com/map/gkrtwEGHRX/
Accessing information from the Web is a skill you need to learn not only for college, but also for the world of work. As a reader and thinker, become an ‘open minded skeptic’ by considering each web site’s Relevancy, Reliability, Credibility and Accuracy using the following seven steps:
1. Know your purpose.
2. Double-check facts and sources.
3. Consider the source.
4. Evaluate content.
5. Determine intended audience.
6. Evaluate the writing.
7. Use what you already know.
Tuesday, April 29, 2008
Chapter 13
Reading beyond the Words
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Critical reading means to asking and answering questions about your reading material at all level thinking. Bloom’s taxonomy lists six levels of critical thinking –knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation- that you can use to deepen your understanding of textbook material. By creating and answering questions at each of these levels, you will be better able to predict the kind of questions your instructor will ask on an exam and better prepared to answer them.
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Critical reading means to asking and answering questions about your reading material at all level thinking. Bloom’s taxonomy lists six levels of critical thinking –knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation- that you can use to deepen your understanding of textbook material. By creating and answering questions at each of these levels, you will be better able to predict the kind of questions your instructor will ask on an exam and better prepared to answer them.
chapter 12
Identifying and Evaluating Arguments
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Arguments are the logical structures that people use when they write and speak to present ideas and persuade others to support those ideas.
An argument consists of two or more statements that include one conclusion and at least one reason that support it. When you find an argument, you should break it down into its constituent parts so that you can determine whether it is well founded and logical. Arguments can be evaluated using specific critical including determining dependability, distinguishing fact from opinion, and detecting fallacies.
There are two primary types of arguments.
Deductive arguments are judged as either being true or false. If the premise or premises of a deductive argument are true, then the conclusion is true.
Inductive argument begins with a series of specific observations and concludes with a generalization that logically follows from it. As they are based on limited observations, even well-constructed inductive arguments cannot be considered absolutely true.
http://freemindshare.com/map/fn14AFIMOT/
Arguments are the logical structures that people use when they write and speak to present ideas and persuade others to support those ideas.
An argument consists of two or more statements that include one conclusion and at least one reason that support it. When you find an argument, you should break it down into its constituent parts so that you can determine whether it is well founded and logical. Arguments can be evaluated using specific critical including determining dependability, distinguishing fact from opinion, and detecting fallacies.
There are two primary types of arguments.
Deductive arguments are judged as either being true or false. If the premise or premises of a deductive argument are true, then the conclusion is true.
Inductive argument begins with a series of specific observations and concludes with a generalization that logically follows from it. As they are based on limited observations, even well-constructed inductive arguments cannot be considered absolutely true.
Chapter 11
Reading, Understanding, and Creating Visual Aids
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Visual aids are a very important part of the textbook reading. They are tools designed to help you learn and remember new concepts and key information.
Visual aids provide a quick, easily accessible format for information that shows you how ideas connect or relate to each other. Authors use visuals as learning aids, as a way to illustrate and explain their main idea. Types of visual aids include mind maps, outlines, charts, diagrams, graphs, illustrations, photographs, and time lines.
An effective reading and study strategy is to make your own visual aids. Here fore you have to recognize the important elements in what you are reading and be able to prioritize and organize them in a logical and useful format.
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Visual aids are a very important part of the textbook reading. They are tools designed to help you learn and remember new concepts and key information.
Visual aids provide a quick, easily accessible format for information that shows you how ideas connect or relate to each other. Authors use visuals as learning aids, as a way to illustrate and explain their main idea. Types of visual aids include mind maps, outlines, charts, diagrams, graphs, illustrations, photographs, and time lines.
An effective reading and study strategy is to make your own visual aids. Here fore you have to recognize the important elements in what you are reading and be able to prioritize and organize them in a logical and useful format.
Tuesday, April 15, 2008
Chapter 10
Textbook Marking
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Textbook marking is a systematic way of marking, highlighting, and labeling ideas to show how they are related to each other and which are most important. It also helps you to remember what you had read. At the end of the study-reading stage of textbook reading, you should look for and mark these items: main ideas, major supporting details, and new vocabulary.
Beyond these three basic elements of textbook marking, you should use your experience in lecture and lab to decide if you need to mark more. Always mark information that is unclear; to remind yourself to find out what it means before you are tested on the material.
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Textbook marking is a systematic way of marking, highlighting, and labeling ideas to show how they are related to each other and which are most important. It also helps you to remember what you had read. At the end of the study-reading stage of textbook reading, you should look for and mark these items: main ideas, major supporting details, and new vocabulary.
Beyond these three basic elements of textbook marking, you should use your experience in lecture and lab to decide if you need to mark more. Always mark information that is unclear; to remind yourself to find out what it means before you are tested on the material.
Chapter 9
Using Preview, Study-Read, and Review (PSR) Strategies
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The PSR technique (preview, study-read, and review) requires that you question yourself before, during and after you read. By asking questions, predicting textbook content, and hypothesizing about the main idea, you are participating in a conversation with the author. You also add what you know to the conversation by recalling related information. This will help you understand and remember more of your reading assignments.
The PSR technique also requires you to respond to readings by writing in your journal. Review reading using your journal can helps you to understand an author’s ideas and helps you relate the material to what you already know.
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The PSR technique (preview, study-read, and review) requires that you question yourself before, during and after you read. By asking questions, predicting textbook content, and hypothesizing about the main idea, you are participating in a conversation with the author. You also add what you know to the conversation by recalling related information. This will help you understand and remember more of your reading assignments.
The PSR technique also requires you to respond to readings by writing in your journal. Review reading using your journal can helps you to understand an author’s ideas and helps you relate the material to what you already know.
chapter 8: Methods of Organization
Methods of Organization
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Authors use different methods of organization in order to present information in a logical format that suits the subject matter and goals of their books. Analysis method, defines a concept to clarity meaning- may use examples and analogies. Another method is the cause/effect, method author use to show why something happened and the effects that occurred as result.
The comparison/contrast method, that focuses on similarities and differences. The definition/example method that breaks apart a concept-presents basic elements. The Sequence method, that shows steps or ideas the chronological order of events. Another useful way to identify an author’s method of organization is to look for the organizational word clues (OWCs) that indicate which patterns he or she is using.
Monday, March 3, 2008
Thinking for your self Chapter 7
Evaluations make judgments about worth on the basis of standards that may be conscious or unconscious.
It can help us react quickly to situation where our survival is a stake. Evaluations are not facts. Factual reports keep the distinction between facts and evaluations clear. Connotative words convey evaluations that can be used to sway our opinions. When we think critically, we recognize how these connotations affect our feelings so that we can choose or not choose to accept the opinions they contain.
It can help us react quickly to situation where our survival is a stake. Evaluations are not facts. Factual reports keep the distinction between facts and evaluations clear. Connotative words convey evaluations that can be used to sway our opinions. When we think critically, we recognize how these connotations affect our feelings so that we can choose or not choose to accept the opinions they contain.
Thinking for your self Chapter 6
Opinion
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Opinion can be substantiated or not. They can be based either on reason or solely on feeling, emotions, or prejudice. It should be not confuse with facts. Critical thinking requires that we recognize the difference between responsible and irresponsible opinion.
Thinking for your self Chapter 5
Assumption
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An assumption is something we take for granted, something we accept prematurely as being true, something we don’t check out carefully.
It can be conscious or unconscious, warranted or unwarranted. Unconscious and unwarranted assumptions can lead to faulty reasoning, whereas conscious and warranted assumptions can be useful tools for problem solving.
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An assumption is something we take for granted, something we accept prematurely as being true, something we don’t check out carefully.
It can be conscious or unconscious, warranted or unwarranted. Unconscious and unwarranted assumptions can lead to faulty reasoning, whereas conscious and warranted assumptions can be useful tools for problem solving.
Thinking for your self Chapter 4
Why we use Inference?
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Inference: Is the act or process of deriving a conclusion based solving on what one already knows.
Facts and inferences are linked together through generalizations. You will understand how observation helps determine facts imagination and reasoning to link the fact with explanation and how generalization ties all this information together into meaningful whole.
Inference also can be use in addition as a strategy in planning and choosing alternative when it comes to solving problems.
http://freemindshare.com/map/cdgryEGTXY/
Inference: Is the act or process of deriving a conclusion based solving on what one already knows.
Facts and inferences are linked together through generalizations. You will understand how observation helps determine facts imagination and reasoning to link the fact with explanation and how generalization ties all this information together into meaningful whole.
Inference also can be use in addition as a strategy in planning and choosing alternative when it comes to solving problems.
Sunday, March 2, 2008
Thinking for your self Chapter 3
What is a Fact?
http://freemindshare.com/map/bfhpt5BHJX/ Fact is something known with certain through experience, observation, or measurement. A Fact can be objectively demonstrated and verified. A couple characteristics that facts must express:
-define their own limitations
-objectively stated
-use appropriately qualifies
-state the obvious not inappropriately cautious
-don’t include guesses or inferences
-specific and offer their evidence for others to verify
Thinking for your self Chapter 2
Word precision, How do I describe it?
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Clear thinking depends on a clear understanding of words we use. Words confusion leads to less consciousness, or disequilibrium, which can only be restored through word clarification.
The test of our understanding of a word is our ability to define it. This ability is particularly important for words representing key ideas that we wish to explain or defend. Taking the time to define the words we use is an essential preliminary to genuine communication.
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Clear thinking depends on a clear understanding of words we use. Words confusion leads to less consciousness, or disequilibrium, which can only be restored through word clarification.
The test of our understanding of a word is our ability to define it. This ability is particularly important for words representing key ideas that we wish to explain or defend. Taking the time to define the words we use is an essential preliminary to genuine communication.
Thinking for your self Chapter 1
OBSERVATION SKILLShttp://freemindshare.com/map/ehlnqt36KV/
1. Observation is a process of sensing, perceiving, and thinking.
2. Observation can help us see details that contain the key to unlocking problems or arriving at insights. It also help us discover new knowledge.
3. Requires us to stay awake, take out time, given full attention, suspend thinking in an attitude of listening.
chapter 7:Inference to Identify Implied Main Ideas
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In order to understand a reading assignment, you need to read the material and combine what is stated with the additional information you generate using inference as tool. While inference is a skill you practice every day, inferring meaning from textbooks and other college reading material requires you to use specific strategies such as detecting an author’s bias, nothing comparisons, and recognizing information gaps.
Friday, February 29, 2008
Chapter 6: Using Inference to Identify Implied Main Ideas
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In order to understand a paragraph, you need to be able to pinpoint the topic and locate the main idea. The main idea is the "key concept" being expressed. Details, major and minor, support the main idea by telling how, what, when, where, why, how much, or how many. Locating the topic, main idea, and supporting details helps you understand the point(s) the writer is attempting to express. Identifying the relationship between these will increase your comprehension.
Chapter 5
Locating states main idea
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Being able to determine the main idea is like having the answer to a puzzle. In order to achieve this,
First, be able to tell the difference between the general topic and the more specific ones.
Second, topic is the most general idea while a main idea is more specific in covering the idea of the piece of writing.
Third, Details are most specific and their job is to explain the main idea.
Those things help you accomplish this are question yourself (what is the meaning of what you’re reading?), locating clue words, searching in the usual places, and categorizing an author’s points. Doing these will help you find the main ideas more efficiently so the relationships between the topic, main idea, and details are more clear. Some main ideas are incredibly obvious, while others are more implied and need time to seek
Tuesday, February 19, 2008
Chapter 4
Chapter 4:Managing Your Reading Time
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When reading it’s more important to understand the material than to skim or attempt to read as fast as you can. There are several steps to better manage your reading time. First, develop a schedule that shows the times you study and the length it is better to choose times when you are more alert and have the length of study using your reading average for each different subject.
Secondly, keep track of your reading rates so you can make a realistic daily reading plan. These steps will help you become a better reader in ways that allow you to manage your time most efficiently while reading.
Sunday, February 17, 2008
Chapter 3:Remembering What You Read
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Memory is the process of storing information, and as in any process, successive steps or stages is essential for it to work. To let new information permanently stored, you need to understand the main idea of the material you are been in contact with. There are three primary stages in the memory process:
Sensory Memory (first stage of the memory process, enters by your sense, taste, smell touch, hearing)
Short-Term Memory (second stage of memory process, just for 20-30second) and Long-Term Memory (final stage. Information can’t be stored until it has passed the Sensory and the Short-Term Memory) Some specific strategies examples to enhance the Sensory Memory are: visualizing information in your head, using your finger to point new words, read your text a loud, acting out a chapter in front of a mirror/ audience.
Chunking is an effective strategy, it works by condensing the amount of information you have to learn. That helps you to organize and remember new information so that it remains in your short-term memory long enough to transfer into your long-term memory. The most efficient way of storing information is to use such as organizing newly learned information, mastering difficult vocabulary, creating a memory matrix, connecting new information with information you already know, going beyond the textbook, reviewing, and teaching the new information to someone else. Mnemonic are recall techniques that can help you retrieve information once it has been learned and stored properly.
Monday, February 11, 2008
Developing Your College Vocabulary
Chapter 2: Developing Your College Vocabulary
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Learning new Vocabulary you are building important reading strategies. Also by increasing your vocabulary, you increase your understanding of textbook information. In addition you will increase your ability to speak and write well- to communicate effectively.
Developing Your Vocabulary; reading and listening comprehension will improve more words. You can use these important strategies to help you figure out the meaning of unfamiliar words: context clues and word part analysis, writing in your textbook, creating word maps, understanding denotation and connotation, journal writing, and the card review system (CRS). One of the best way of making word a part of your vocabulary is the use of it in your daily life.
Friday, February 8, 2008
Chapter 1: Reading in College
Chapter 1 Reading in College.
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Reading is an active process that depends on both an author’s ability to convey meaning using words and ability to create meaning from them. You need to constantly connect what you already know about the information to the words the author has written.
Learning Journals is a technique that helps you to analyze reading strategies and assess your learning. Using a learning journal helps you remember 80-90% of what you read. It also helps you to
Concentration is a skill that can be learned with patience and perseverance. Like any reading strategy, concentration takes practice before it will kick in automatically every time you open a textbook.
Learning Styles, most of what we learn comes from what we hear (auditory learning) in lectures or on audiotapes; see visual learning) through reading or watching people, videotapes, or television; or touch and do (kinesthetic learning) by practicing techniques, drawing maps, creating outlines, or making models
Concentration Blocks, to recognize what distracts you when you are reading is an important way to improve your concentration. There are two kinds of distracters: Internal (comes from inside you) and external (comes from your environment).
Concentration Techniques, to improve your concentration there are five techniques: 1. Checkmark Monitor System; helps you monitor how many times you lose your concentration as you read. 2. Creating a Study Environment 3. Creating a Positive mental Attitude 4. Using your Journal as a Worry Pad or 5. Writing a Letter is especially helpful if you are distracted by internal or external distracters.
http://freemindshare.com/map/bhltuvzQSV/
Reading is an active process that depends on both an author’s ability to convey meaning using words and ability to create meaning from them. You need to constantly connect what you already know about the information to the words the author has written.
Learning Journals is a technique that helps you to analyze reading strategies and assess your learning. Using a learning journal helps you remember 80-90% of what you read. It also helps you to
Concentration is a skill that can be learned with patience and perseverance. Like any reading strategy, concentration takes practice before it will kick in automatically every time you open a textbook.
Learning Styles, most of what we learn comes from what we hear (auditory learning) in lectures or on audiotapes; see visual learning) through reading or watching people, videotapes, or television; or touch and do (kinesthetic learning) by practicing techniques, drawing maps, creating outlines, or making models
Concentration Blocks, to recognize what distracts you when you are reading is an important way to improve your concentration. There are two kinds of distracters: Internal (comes from inside you) and external (comes from your environment).
Concentration Techniques, to improve your concentration there are five techniques: 1. Checkmark Monitor System; helps you monitor how many times you lose your concentration as you read. 2. Creating a Study Environment 3. Creating a Positive mental Attitude 4. Using your Journal as a Worry Pad or 5. Writing a Letter is especially helpful if you are distracted by internal or external distracters.
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